The Song dynasty ( ; Chinese: ; pinyin: SÃÆ'²ng chÃÆ'¡o ; 960-1279) is the era of Chinese history that began in 960 and continues until 1279. Founded by Emperor Taizu of Song after the throne takeover Then Zhou, ending the Five Dynasties period and Ten Kingdoms. Song was often in conflict with the Liao dynasty and the Western Qing Dynasty in the north and was conquered by the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Song Government is the first in the history of the world to issue genuine paper money or paper money nationally and the first Chinese government to establish permanent permanent navy. This dynasty also saw the use of the first known gunpowder, as well as the first confirmation of the true north using a compass.
The Song Dynasty was divided into two distinct periods, North and South. During the Northern Song (Song Song), the capital Song was in the northern city of Bianjing (now Kaifeng) and the dynasty controlled most of what is now East China. The Southern Song (Chinese: ?? <1127-1279) refers to the period after Song lost control of the northern half to the Jurchen Jin dynasty in the Jin-Song War. During this time, Song's palace retreated to the south of the Yangtze and established its capital in Lin'an (now Hangzhou). Although the Song dynasty had lost control of the "birthplace of traditional Chinese civilization" along the Yellow River, Song's economy was still strong, because the Southern Song Kingdom had a large population and productive agricultural land. The Southern Song Dynasty strongly supported its naval power to defend its waters and land borders and to undertake maritime missions abroad. To expel Jin, and then the Mongols, Song developed a revolutionary new military technology coupled with the use of gunpowder. In 1234, the Jin dynasty was conquered by the Mongols, who controlled northern China, maintaining an uncomfortable relationship with Southern Song. MÃÆ'¶ngke Khan, the fourth Great Khan of the Mongol Empire, died in 1259 while besieging the city of Chongqing. His younger brother, Kublai Khan, proclaimed the new Khan the Great, although his claim was only acknowledged in part by the Mongols in the west. In 1271, Kublai Khan was proclaimed the Chinese Emperor. After two decades of sporadic war, Kublai Khan's forces conquered the Song Dynasty in 1279. Mongol invasions led to reunification under the Yuan dynasty (1271-1368).
The Chinese population has doubled in size over the 10th and 11th centuries. This growth was made possible by the expansion of rice cultivation in central and southern Songs, the use of rice harvested earlier than southeastern and southeastern Asia, and widespread food surplus production. The North Song Census records 20 million households, twice the Han and Tang dynasties. It is estimated that the North Song has a population of about 120 million people, and 200 million at the time of the Ming dynasty. This dramatic population increase led to an economic revolution in pre-modern China. Population expansion, urban growth, and the rise of the national economy led to the gradual withdrawal of the central government from direct involvement in economic affairs. The lesser nobles took on a greater role in grassroots administration and local affairs. The appointed officials in the regions and provincial centers rely on scientific nobility for their services, sponsors, and local oversight.
The social life during Song was lively. Residents gather to see and trade valuable artworks, people mingling at public festivals and private clubs, and cities have lively entertainment venues. The spread of lithography and knowledge was enhanced by the rapid expansion of wooden stamping and 11th century invention of the movable type mold. Technology, science, philosophy, mathematics, and engineering evolved during Song's journey. Philosophers like Cheng Yi and Zhu Xi revived Confucianism with new comments, impregnated with Buddhist ideals, and emphasized the new organization of classical texts that gave rise to the core doctrine of Neo-Confucianism. Although the civil service examination institute has existed since the Sui dynasty, it became much more prominent in the Song period. Officials who gained power successfully on exams became a major factor in the shift from military-noble elite to bureaucratic elite.
Video Song dynasty
Histori
Utara Song, 960-1126
After capturing the throne of the Zhou Dynasty, Emperor Taizu of Song (reigned 960-976) spent sixteen years conquering the rest of China, reuniting many areas that once belonged to the Han and Tang empires and ending the turbulence of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms. At Kaifeng, he established a powerful central government over the empire. This capital formation marks the beginning of the Northern Song period. He ensured administrative stability by promoting a civil service examination system to develop state bureaucrats with skills and achievements (not aristocratic or military positions) and promote projects that ensure efficiency in communication across the empire. In one such project, cartographers create detailed maps of each province and city that are then collected in a large atlas. Emperor Taizu also promoted a breakthrough of scientific and technological innovation by supporting works such as the astronomical clock tower designed and built by engineer Zhang Sixun.
Song Court maintains diplomatic relations with Chola India, Fatimid Khilafah from Egypt, Sriwijaya, Kara-Khanid Khanate from Central Asia, Goryeo Kingdom in Korea, and other countries who are also trading partners with Japan. Chinese notes even mention an embassy from the ruler of "Fu lin" (??, the Byzantine Empire), Michael VII Doukas, and his arrival in 1081. However, China's closest neighbor has the greatest impact on its domestic and foreign policy.. Since its founding under Taizu, the Song dynasty alternated between war and diplomacy with the Khitan ethnic from the Liao dynasty in the northeast and with Tangut from the West Xia in the northwest. The Song Dynasty used military force in an attempt to extinguish the Liao dynasty and to reclaim the Sixteen Prefectures, an area under the control of Circumcision since 938 which is traditionally considered part of the right China (Most of Beijing and Tianjin today). Song troops were repelled by Liao troops, who were involved in an aggressive annual campaign to the Northern Song region up to 1005, when the signing of the Shanyuan Treaty ended the northern border clash. Song was forced to pay homage to the people of Khitan, though this slightly undermined Song's economy because the people of Khitan are economically dependent on the import of large quantities of goods from Song. More importantly, Song's state recognizes Liao's country as a diplomatic equation.
The Song Dynasty won several military victories over the Tanguts in the early 11th century, culminating in a campaign led by polymath scientist, general, and statesman Shen Kuo (1031-1095). However, this campaign ultimately failed because a rival army officer Shen broke the direct order, and the area gained from the Western Xia finally disappeared. There was also a significant war against the Vietnamese LÃÆ'½ Dynasty from 1075 to 1077 over the border dispute and Song broke off trade ties with the kingdom Vi Vi. After the LÃÆ'½ army inflicted heavy damage in the attack on Guangxi, commander Song Guo Kui (1022-1088) penetrated as far as Th? Ng Long (modern Hanoi). The big losses on both sides prompted commander L Th½ Thi ng Ki? T (1019-1105) to make a peace offer, allowing both sides to withdraw from the war effort; the territories won by Song and LÃÆ'½ were exchanged in 1082, together with prisoners of war.
During the 11th century, political rivalry divides members of the courts because of different ministerial approaches, opinions and policies regarding the handling of Song's complex society and the growing economy. The idealist chancellor, Fan Zhongyan (989-1052), was the first to receive a heated political reaction when he tried to institutionalize the Qingli Reform, which included measures such as improving the official recruitment system, increasing salaries for small officials, and building sponsorship programs for allowing more people to be well educated and qualified to obtain state services.
After Fan was forced to step down from his office, Wang Anshi (1021-1086) became the Imperial Court chancellor. With the support of Emperor Shenzong (1067-1085), Wang Anshi strongly condemned the education system and state bureaucracy. Seeking to resolve what he sees as state corruption and neglect, Wang implements a series of reforms called the New Policy. It involves land value tax reform, the establishment of several government monopolies, local militia support, and the creation of higher standards for Imperial inspection to make it more practical for people skilled in the art to be passed.
Reforms create political factions in court. The "New Policy Group" of Wang Anshi ( Xin Fa ), also known as the "Reformist", was opposed by ministers in the "Conservative" faction led by historian and Chancellor Sima Guang (1019-1086). ). When one faction replaces the other in the majority position of court ministers, it will depose rival officials and alienate them to rule the imperial border areas of the empire. One of the main victims of political competition, renowned poet and statesman Su Shi (1037-1101), was imprisoned and eventually exiled for criticizing Wang's reforms.
While the central Song court remained politically divided and focused on its internal affairs, it was worrisome that a new scene in the north in Liao's country finally came to its attention. Jurchen, the tribe who was the subject of Liao, rebelled against them and formed their own state, the Jin dynasty (1115-1234). Officer Song Tong Guan (1054-1126) advised Emperor Huizong (1100-1125) to form an alliance with the Jurchen, and a joint military campaign under the Alliance Done on this Sea was overthrown and completely conquered the Liao dynasty in 1125.
However, the poor performance and the military weakness of the Song army were observed by Jurchen, who immediately broke the alliance, initiated the Jin-Song War in 1125 and 1127. In the Jingkang Incident during the last invasion, Jurchen captured not only capital, but retired Emperor Huizong, Qinzong, and most of the Imperial palaces.
The remaining Song troops reunited under Emperor Gaozong of Song (1127-1162) and retreated to the south of Yangtze to establish a new capital in Lin'an (modern Hangzhou). The Jurchen Conquest of Northern China and the shift of the capital from Kaifeng to Lin'an were the dividing line between the Northern and Southern Song dynasties.
After falling to the Jin, Song lost control of North China and Jin, now occupying what is traditionally known as "China Proper," considers himself the legitimate ruler of China. The genie then deliberately chose the earth as a dynastic and yellow element as the color of his empire. According to the theory of the Five Elements (wuxing), the element of the earth follows fire, the element of the Song dynasty, in the order of element creation. Therefore, this ideological movement shows that Jin considers the Song of China government to be officially over and Jin has replaced Song as the rightful ruler of China Proper.
Southern Song, 1127-1279
Despite the weakening and pushing south beyond the Huai River, the South Song found a new way to boost a strong economy and defend itself against the Jin dynasty. He has military officers like Yue Fei and Han Shizhong. Government-sponsored shipbuilding and port construction projects, as well as the construction of a warehouse and a seaport to support maritime trade abroad, including major international seaports, such as Quanzhou, Guangzhou and Xiamen, which support China's trade.
To protect and support many maritime sailing vessels to the waters of the East China Sea and the Yellow Sea (to Korea and Japan), Southeast Asia, Indian Ocean and the Red Sea, it is necessary to establish an official naval position. The Song Dynasty therefore formed the first permanent navy of China in 1132, with the headquarters in Dinghai. With a permanent navy, Song was prepared to face Jin's naval forces on the Yangtze River in 1161, in the Battle of Tangdao and the Battle of Caishi. During this battle, Song's navy used naval vessels powered by rowboats armed with trebuchet tractors on a deck that launched gunpowder bombs. Although the army of Jin commanded by Wanyan Liang (Prince of Hailing) boasted 70,000 people on 600 warships, and Song's troops were only 3,000 people on 120 warships, the Song dynasty won in both battles because of the destructive power of bombs and rapid assaults by paddle boats. The strength of the navy was strongly emphasized after that. A century after the navy was established, the number has reached 52,000 marines who fought.
The Song Government seized part of the land belonging to the landed nobles to increase the income of these projects, an act that caused disputes and loss of loyalty among the main members of the Song community but did not stop Song's defensive preparation. Financial problems are exacerbated by the fact that many rich families, landowners - some of whom have officials working for the government - use their social connections with those in power to obtain tax-exempt status.
Although the Song dynasty was able to hold Jin, a new enemy ruled over the meadows, deserts, and northern plains of the Jin dynasty. The Mongols, led by Genghis Khan (reigned 1206-1227), initially invaded the Jin dynasty in 1205 and 1209, were involved in a major assault across its border, and in 1211 a very large Mongol army gathered to attack Jin. The Jin Dynasty was forced to bow down and honor the Mongols as followers; when Jin suddenly moved their capital from Beijing to Kaifeng, the Mongols saw this as a rebellion. Under the leadership of ÃÆ' â € "gedei Khan (r.1229-1241), the Jin dynasty and the Western dynasty of Xia were conquered by Mongol forces. The Mongols also invaded Korea, the Abbasid Caliphate in the Middle East and the Kievan Rus'.
The Mongols allied themselves with Song, but the alliance was broken when Song reconverted former imperial capital Kaifeng, Luoyang, and Chang'an on the collapse of the Jin dynasty. Mongol leader MÃÆ'¶ngke Khan led the campaign against Song in 1259 but died on August 11 during Sioye Fort Siege in Chongqing. MÃÆ'¶ngke's death and subsequent succession crisis prompted Hulagu Khan to withdraw most of the Mongol troops out of the Middle East where they were ready to fight the Egyptian Mamluks (who defeated the Mongols in Ain Jalut). Although Hulagu is allied with Kublai Khan, his troops can not help in the attack on Song, due to the Hulagu war with the Golden Horde.
Kublai continued the attack on Song, gaining a temporary foothold on the southern edge of the Yangtze. Kublai made preparations to take Ezhou, but a delayed civil war with his brother Ariq BÃÆ'¶ke - rival prosecutor Mongol Khaganate - forced Kublai to return north with most of his troops. In Kublai's absence, Song's troops were ordered by Chancellor Jia Sidao to make a direct attack and succeeded in pushing the Mongol forces back to the northern edge of the Yangtze. There was a small frontier battle until 1265, when Kublai won significant battles in Sichuan.
From 1268 to 1273, Kublai blockaded the Yangtze River with its navy and besieged Xiangyang, the last obstacle on its way to invading the rich Yangtze River valley. Kublai officially declared the creation of the Yuan dynasty in 1271.
In 1275, Song's troop of 130,000 troops under Chancellor Jia Sidao was defeated by the newly appointed commander of Kublai, General Bayan.
In 1276, most of Song's territory had been captured by Yuan troops, including the capital Li'nan.
In the Battle of Yamen in the Pearl River Delta in 1279, the Yuan army, led by General Zhang Hongfan, eventually destroyed Song's resistance. The last ruler, the eight-year-old emperor Emperor Huaizong of Song, committed suicide, along with Prime Minister Lu Xiufu and 800 members of the royal clan. On orders of Kublai, by his commander, Bayan, the remnants of the imperial family of Songs were unharmed; The ousted Emperor Gong was demoted, dubbed the 'Duke of Ying', but was eventually exiled to Tibet where he lived a monastic life. The former emperor will eventually be forced to commit suicide under the orders of Kublai's great grandson, Gegeen Khan, for fear that Emperor Gong will stage a coup to restore his rule. Other members of the Song Imperial family continued to live in the Yuan dynasty, including Zhao Mengfu and Zhao Yong.
Maps Song dynasty
Society and culture
The Song Dynasty was an era of administrative sophistication and complex social organization. Some of the largest cities in the world are found in China during this period (Kaifeng and Hangzhou have a population of over one million). People enjoy various social and entertainment clubs in the cities, and there are many schools and temples to provide people with education and religious services. Song Government supports social welfare programs including the establishment of nursing homes, public clinics, and the grave of the poor. The Song Dynasty supported an extensive postal service modeled on the previous Han dynasty system (202 BC - CE 220) to provide rapid communication throughout the empire. The central government employs thousands of postal workers from various levels to provide services for larger post offices and post stations. In rural areas, peasant farmers own land, pay rent as tenant farmers, or slaves in large estates.
Although women are at a lower social level than men (according to the Confucian ethic), they enjoy many social and legal rights and hold considerable power at home and in their own small business. As the Song society grew prosperous and the older bride's parents provided a larger dowry for her marriage, women naturally acquired many new legal rights in property ownership. Under certain circumstances, an unmarried daughter without a sibling, or a mother still alive without a son, can inherit half of her father's share of undivided family possessions. There are many prominent and educated women, and it is a common practice for women to educate their sons during their youth. The mother of the scientist, general, diplomat, and statesman Shen Kuo taught him important things about military strategy. There are also great writers and poets, such as Li Qingzhao (1084-1151), who became famous even in his life.
Religion in China during this period had a great influence on people's lives, beliefs, and daily activities, and Chinese literature on spirituality was very popular. The main deities of Taoism and Buddhism, ancestral spirits, and many Chinese religious deities were worshiped with sacrificial offerings. Tansen Sen asserted that more Buddhist monks from India traveled to China during Song than in previous Tang Dynasty (618-907). With many ethnic foreigners traveling to China to trade or live permanently, there are many foreign religions; Religious minorities in China include Middle Eastern Muslims, Jewish Kaifeng, and Persian Manichaeans.
Its residents engage in vibrant social and domestic life, enjoying public festivals such as the Lantern Festival and the Qingming Festival. There are entertainment venues in cities that provide a constant array of entertainment. There are dalangs, acrobats, theater actors, sword-eaters, snake shooters, storytellers, singers and musicians, prostitutes, and places to relax, including tea houses, restaurants and banquets. People attend social clubs in large numbers; there are tea clubs, exotic food clubs, antique clubs and art collectors, horse-loving clubs, poetry clubs and music clubs. Like the cuisine and regional cuisine in Song, this era is known for its regional varieties of performing arts style as well. Theatrical drama is very popular among the elite and the general public, although Classical Chinese - not a regional language - is spoken by actors on stage. The four biggest drama theaters in Kaifeng can accommodate several thousand spectators each. There is also important domestic entertainment, because the people at home enjoy activities like going and xiangqi board games.
Examination of civil servants and nobility
During this period, a greater emphasis was placed on the civil service system of recruiting officials; this is based on degrees gained through competitive exams, in an attempt to select the most capable individual for governance. Choosing a man for the office through a proven reward is an ancient idea in China. The civil service system became institutionalized on a small scale during the Sui and Tang dynasties, but in the Song period it became the only way to organize officials into government. The advent of printing extensively helps many outstanding teachings of Confucianism and to educate more and more qualified candidates for the exam. This can be seen in the number of examinees for low-grade prefecture exams that rose from 30,000 annual candidates in the early 11th century to 400,000 candidates by the end of the 13th century. The civil service and inspection system enables greater meritocracy, social mobility, and equality in competition for those who wish to secure official seats in government. Using the statistics collected by Song state, Edward A. Kracke, Sud? Yoshiyuki, and Ho Ping-ti support the hypothesis that simply having a father, grandfather, or great-grandfather who has served as a state official does not guarantee someone will get the same level of authority. Robert Hartwell and Robert P. Hymes criticize this model, stating that it is too stressed on the role of the nuclear family and only considering the three candidates of the candidate's father while neglecting the reality of Chinese Song demography, a significant proportion of males in each generation who have no son life, and the role of extended family. Many feel that they are losing their rights because of what they see as a bureaucratic system that benefits the land management class capable of providing the best education possible. One of the greatest literary critics of this is the famous and famous poet Su Shi. But Su is the product of his day, because the identity, customs, and attitudes of the graduate-officers have become less aristocratic and more bureaucratic with the transition period from Tang to Song. At the beginning of the dynasty, the government post was disproportionately held by two elite social groups: the founding elite with links to the founding emperor and the semi-hereditary professional elite who used the old clan status, family connections, and the marriage alliance for a secure promise. At the end of the eleventh century, the founding elite became obsolete, while political allegiance and factionalism in court undermined the strategy of professional elite marriage, dissolved as a distinguished social group and replaced by many noble families.
Due to the immense growth of Song's population and the body of appointed clerical officials received in limited numbers (about 20,000 active officers during the Song period), the larger noble class will now take over grassroots affairs at the local level. Excluding undergraduates in the office, this elite social class consists of a candidate for examination, holders of the examination degree have not been assigned to official posts, local tutors, and retired officials. These educated people, title holders, and local elites oversee local affairs and sponsor the necessary facilities of the local community; every local judge appointed to his office by the government relies on the cooperation of several or many local nobles in the area. For example, Song's government - excluding reformist governments - education under Emperor Huizong - left little state revenue to defend prefecture and district schools; on the contrary, most of the funds for schools are taken from private financing. This limited role of government officials was a departure from the previous Tang dynasty (618-907), when the government strictly regulated commercial markets and local affairs; now the government draws a lot from regulating trade and relying on the masses of local nobles to perform the necessary tasks in their community.
The nobles distinguished themselves in society through their intellectual and antiquarian pursuits, while prominent landowners' houses attracted various courtiers, including artisans, artists, educational counselors, and entertainers. Despite underestimating trade, trade and merchant classes exhibited by cultured and elite academic officials, commercialism plays an important role in Song culture and society. An academic official will be criticized by his friends if he pursues a way of profiting beyond his official salary; However, this does not stop many scholars-officials from managing business relationships through the use of intermediary agents.
Legal, fair, and forensic science
Song's judicial system retained much of the code of law from the previous Tang dynasty, the traditional Chinese legal basis to the modern era. Around the sheriff maintains law and order in the jurisdiction of the city and occasionally ventures into the countryside. Official officials who oversee court cases are not only expected to understand written law but also to promote morality in society. Judges like the famous Bao Qingtian (999-1062) embody an honest moral judge who upholds justice and never fails to fulfill his principles. The judge of the song specifies the person or party guilty of a criminal offense and implies appropriate punishment, often in the form of caning. Individuals or guilty parties are brought to justice for criminal or civil offenses are not viewed as completely innocent until proven otherwise, while the accusers are viewed with high levels of suspicion by judges. Due to the costly court fees and direct imprisonment of those accused of criminal offenses, the people in Song preferred to settle disputes and argue privately, without court intervention.
Shen Kuo Dream Pool Essays argues against traditional Chinese beliefs in anatomy (such as his argument for two throat valves instead of three); this may have prompted interest in post-mortem autopsy performance in China during the 12th century. Doctors and judges known as Song Ci (1186-1249) wrote pioneering works of forensic science on coronation examinations to determine the cause of death (strangulation, poisoning, drowning, blows, etc.) and to prove whether death resulted from murder, suicide, or accidental death. Song Ci emphasized the importance of appropriate coronary behavior during autopsy and accurate recording of examination of each autopsy by an official employee.
Military and battle methods
Military Song was primarily organized to ensure that soldiers could not threaten Imperial control, often at the expense of effectiveness in war. The Northern Song Military Council operates under the Chancellery, which has no control over the imperial army. The imperial army was divided among three marshalals, each independently responsible to the Emperor. Because the Emperor rarely leads the campaign personally, Song's troops have no command unity. Imperial courts often believe that the generals succeed in endangering the authority of the kingdom, and relieved or even executed them (especially Li Gang, Yue Fei, and Han Shizhong).
Although clerical officials regard military troops as lower members in a hierarchical social order, one can gain status and prestige in society by becoming a high-ranking military officer with a record of winning battles. At its peak, the Song's military had a million soldiers divided into 50-armed platoon, a company of two platoons, a battalion of 500 soldiers. Crossbowmen are separated from regular infantry and placed in their own units as they are valuable warriors, providing effective missile shells against cavalry forces. The government is eager to sponsor new arrow designs that can shoot at greater distances, while crossbowmen are also valuable when used as long distance snipers. The song cavalry uses many different weapons, including spears, swords, bows, spears, and 'fire spears' that give out explosions of firearms and shrapnel.
Military strategy and military training are treated as science that can be learned and perfected; soldiers tested their ability to use weapons and in their athletic abilities. The troops are trained to follow the standard signals to advance in the waving of banners and to stop at the sound of bells and drums.
The Song Navy was crucial during the consolidation of the empire in the 10th century; During the war against the Southern Tang state, Song's navy used tactics such as maintaining a large pontoon bridge on the Yangtze River to secure troop and supply movements. There are large ships in the Song Navy that can carry 1,000 troops on their deck, while the fast moving wheelboards are seen as important battleships in every successful sea battle.
In the battle on January 23, 971, a massive arrow shot from the Song dynasty crossbowmen destroyed the war of elephant war of the South Han army. This defeat not only marked the handover of the Han South to the Song dynasty, but also the last example in which the elephant war corps was employed as a regular division within the Chinese army.
There are a total of 347 military treatises written during the Song period, as noted by the historical text of Song Shi (compiled in 1345). However, only a handful of military treaties survived, including Wujing Zongyao written in 1044. This is the first book known to have a formula for gunpowder; it gives the right formula to be used in different types of gunpowder. It also provides detailed descriptions and illustrations of dual piston pump pistons, as well as instructions for the maintenance and repair of components and equipment used in the device.
Art, literature and philosophy
Visual art during the Song dynasty was exacerbated by new developments such as advances in landscape and portrait paintings. The noble elite involved in the arts as entertainment received from cultured scholars-officials, including painting, composing poetry, and writing calligraphy. Poet and statesman Su Shi and his colleague Mi Fu (1051-1107) enjoy antique affairs, often borrowing or buying artwork to learn and copy. Poetry and literature benefit from the increasing popularity and development of the form of poetry ci. Massive encyclopaedic volumes are compiled, such as historiographic works and dozens of treatises on technical subjects. This includes the universal history text from Zizhi Tongjian , which is compiled into 1,000 volumes of 9.4 million written Mandarin characters. The genre of Chinese travel literature has also become popular with the writings of geographer Fan Chengda (1126-1193) and Su Shi, the latter of whom wrote 'daytrip essays' known as the Bell Mountain Stone Records using writing persuasive to debate philosophical points. Although the earliest forms of local geographical gazetteers existed in China since the 1st century, the adult form known as "treatise somewhere", or fangzhi, replaces the old "map guide," or tujing , during the Song dynasty.
The imperial court emperor's court was filled with a group of palace painters, calligraphers, poets, and storytellers. Emperor Huizong is a renowned artist and patron of art. The prime example of a highly respected court painter is Zhang Zeduan (1085-1145) who paints a huge panoramic painting, During the River During the Qingming Festival. The Emperor Gaozong of Song started a massive art project during his reign, known as the Eighteen Songs of Nomad Flute from the life story of Cai Wenji (b.177). This art project was a diplomatic movement for the Jin dynasty when he negotiated to free his mother from Jurchen prisoner to the north.
In philosophy, Chinese Buddhism has dwindled in its influence but retained its grip on the arts and on the charities of the monasteries. Buddhism had a major influence on the Neo-Confucian movements, led by Cheng Yi (1033-1107) and Zhu Xi (1130-1200). Mahayana Buddhism influenced Fan Zhongyan and Wang Anshi through the concept of ethical universalism, while Buddhist metaphysics profoundly influenced Cheng Yi's pre-Neo-Confucian doctrine. Cheng Yi's philosophical work in turn affected Zhu Xi. Although his writings are not accepted by his contemporary counterparts, Zhu's commentary and emphasis on Confucianism's classic book of the Four Books as an introduction to the corpus to study Confucianism forms the basis of the Neo-Confucian doctrine. In 1241, under the sponsorship of Emperor Lizong, Zhu Xi's Four Books and his commentary on them became a standardized learning requirement for students who were trying to pass civil service examinations. East Asian countries Japan and Korea also adopted the teachings of Zhu Xi, known as Shushigaku (???, Zhu Xi School) from Japan, and in Korea Jujahak (???). The persistent influence of Buddhism can be seen in painted paintings such as "Lujing Laundering Highness" from Lin Tinggui. However, the ideology is highly criticized and even scorned by some. The statesman and historian Ouyang Xiu (1007-1072) called it a "curse" that can only be reversed by depriving it of Chinese culture and replacing it with the Confucian discourse. The true renaissance of Buddhism in Chinese society will not take place until the Mongol rule of the Yuan dynasty, with Kublai Khan's sponsorship of Tibetan Buddhism and DrogÃÆ'¶n ChÃÆ'¶gyal Phagpa as the foremost prominent. The Nestorian Christian sect, who had entered China in the Tang era, would also be revived in China under Mongol rule.
Cuisine and apparel
The sumptuary law regulates the food consumed and the clothes it wears in accordance with the status and social class. Clothing made of hemp or cotton cloth, limited to the standard black and white. Trousers are acceptable outfits for farmers, soldiers, craftsmen, and merchants, though wealthy merchants may choose to wear more clothes and men's blouses that fall below the waist. Acceptable attire for academic officials is rigidly determined by the social rank system. However, over time the rules of rank clothing for officials were not strictly enforced. Each official can display his or her given status by wearing a traditional silk robe of different colors hanging on the ground around his feet, special headdress types, and even a special girdle style featuring his officials' ratings.
Women wear long dresses, blouses that go down to knees, skirts and jackets with long or short sleeves, while women from wealthy families can wear purple scarves on their shoulders. The main difference in women's clothing from men is that he is tied on the left, not on the right.
The main staples in lower class foods are rice, pork, and salted fish. The Song restaurant and the tavern's menu are recorded containing a list of dishes for parties, banquets, festivals, and carnivals. They reveal diverse and luxurious diets for those from the upper classes. They can choose from a variety of meat and seafood, including shrimp, goose, duck, shellfish, shell, fallow deer, rabbits, fowl, fowl, francolin, quail, fox, weasel, shells, crabs, and many others. Dairy products are rare in Chinese cuisine today. Beef is rarely consumed because bulls are a valuable animal, and dog meat is not in the rich diet, although poor people may choose to eat dog meat if necessary (but that is not part of their regular diet). People also consume dates, raisins, jujubes, pears, plums, apricots, pear juice, lychee juice, honey and ginger drink, papaya juice, spices and seasonings Sichuan pepper, ginger, soy sauce, oil, sesame oil, salt, and vinegar.
Economy, industry and trade
The Song Dynasty has one of the most prosperous and advanced economies in the medieval world. Song Chinese invested their funds in joint-stock companies and on several sailing vessels at a time of guaranteed monetary profits from strong foreign trade and domestic trade along the Grand Canal and Yangtze River. Leading merchant families and private businesses are allowed to occupy industries that are not government-operated monopolies. Both private and government-controlled industries meet the needs of a growing Chinese population in Song. Craftsmen and merchants form guilds that the state must overcome when assessing taxes, picking up goods, and setting the wages of standard workers and the price of goods.
The iron industry is pursued by both private entrepreneurs who have their own smelters as well as government-controlled smelting facilities. Song's economy is stable enough to produce over a hundred million kilograms (over two hundred million pounds) of iron products per year. Large-scale deforestation in China will continue if not for the innovation of coal use in the 11th century rather than charcoal in melting furnace for cast iron smelting. Most of this iron is supplied for military purposes in the manufacture of weapons and armored forces, but some are used to form many of the iron products necessary to meet the growing demands of the domestic market. Iron trade in China is advanced by the construction of new canals, facilitating the flow of iron products from production centers to large markets in the capital.
The annual output of copper currency printed in 1085 reaches about six billion coins. The most prominent advancement in the Song economy is the creation of the world's first print money bank, known as Jiaozi (see also Huizi ). For printing banknotes, Song's palace set up several government-run factories in Huizhou, Chengdu, Hangzhou and Anqi cities. The size of labor used in large banknote factories; noted in 1175 that the factory in Hangzhou employs more than a thousand workers every day.
Song China's economic power deeply influences foreign economies abroad. The Moroccan geographer al-Idrisi wrote in 1154 about the greatness of Chinese merchant vessels in the Indian Ocean and their annual voyages carrying iron, sword, silk, velvet, porcelain and various textiles to places such as Aden (Yemen), Indus River, and the Euphrates River in modern Iraq. Foreigners, in turn, affect the Chinese economy. For example, many West Asian and Central Asian Muslims go to China to trade, becoming a major force in the import and export industry, while some are even appointed officials overseeing economic affairs. Sea trade with the West-South Pacific, the Hindu world, the Islamic world, and East Africa bring great luck to traders and spur major growth in the ship-making industry of Fujian Province's Song-era. However, there are risks involved in such a long overseas venture. To reduce the risk of losing money on overseas maritime trading missions, write historians Ebrey, Walthall, and Palais:
[Era Song] investors usually divide their investments among many ships, and every ship has many investors behind it. An observer thinks the desire to invest in foreign trade leads to a copper money outflow. He writes, 'People along the coast are in intimate contact with the merchants involved in foreign trade either because they are fellow countrymen or private acquaintances.... [They give merchants] money to carry with them on board them to buy and return the delivery of foreign goods. They invest from ten to a hundred strings of cash, and regularly generate a few hundred percent 'profit.
Technology, science and engineering
Gunpowder
Advances in weapon technology enhanced by gunpowder, including the evolution of early flamethrowers, explosive grenades, firearms, cannons and landmines, allowed Song Chinese to ward off their militant foes until the late Song's collapse at the end of the 13th century. The Wujing Zongyao text of 1044 is the first book in history to provide a formula for gunpowder and their specific use in various types of bombs. When involved in the war with the Mongols, in 1259 Li Zengbo authored in his book Kezhai Zagao, Xugaohou that the city of Qingzhou produced one to two thousand powerful iron bombs a month, sent to Xiangyang and Yingzhou about ten to twenty thousand such bombs at a time. In turn, the Mongols who attacked hired the northern Chinese army and used this same type of gunpowder against Song. In the 14th century, firearms and cannons can also be found in Europe, India, and the Middle East of Islam, in the early days of the gunpowder war.
At the beginning of the Han dynasty, when the state is required to measure accurately the distance of travel throughout the empire, the Chinese rely on mechanical odometer. Chinese Odometers are wheeled trains, their equipment is driven by wheelbarrow rotations; units of a certain distance - Chinese li is characterized by mechanical strikes of drums or bells as auditory signals. The specification for the 11th-century odometer was written by Chamberlain Chief Lu Daolong, who is quoted extensively in the historical texts of Song Shi (compiled by 1345). In the Song period, the odometer rides are also combined with an old complex mechanical device known as the south-pointed train. This device, originally created by Ma Jun in the 3rd century, incorporates a differential gear that allows a figure mounted in a vehicle to always point southward, no matter how the wheel of the vehicle is spinning. The concept of differential gear used in this navigation vehicle is now found in modern cars to apply the same amount of torque to the wheels of the car even as they rotate at different speeds.
Polymaths, discovery, and astronomy
Polymath figures such as statesman Shen Kuo (1031-1095) and Su Song (1020-1101) made progress in all fields of study, including biology, botany, zoology, geology, mineralogy, mechanics, horology, astronomy, pharmaceutical drugs, archeology, mathematics, cartography, optics, art criticism, and more.
Shen Kuo was the first to see the actual magnetic declination of the north while experimenting with a compass. Shen theorizes that the geographical climate gradually shifts over time. He created the theory of land formation involving concepts accepted in modern geomorphology. He conducted an optical experiment with camera obscura just a few decades after Ibn al-Haytham was the first to do so. He also enhanced the design of astronomical instruments such as astronomical sighting tubes that widened, allowing Shen Kuo to improve the position of the polar star (which has shifted over the centuries of time). Shen Kuo is also known for hydraulic working hours, as he invented a new clepsydra overflow-tank that has a more efficient and higher interpolation than linear interpolation in time-size calibration.
Su Song is best known for his horrific treatise written in 1092, which describes and illustrates in great detail the hydraulic-powered, 12-m (39 ft) astronomical clock tower built in Kaifeng. The clock tower features large astronomical instruments from the armillary sphere and the celestial sphere, both driven by an intermittent sprinting mechanism (similar to the escape from the west of mechanical clocks that actually appeared in medieval working hours, derived from the ancient working hours of classical times). Tower Su displays a rotating gear with 133 hourly mannequin jacks mannequins to rotate past closed windows while ringing gongs and bells, hitting drums, and placing announcements. In his printed book, Su published a five star star atlas. This star graph displays a cylindrical projection similar to Mercator's projection, the last being Carthage Mercator cartography in 1569.
Song Chinese observes the supernovae. In addition, The Soochow's Astronomy Chart on Chinese planomfer was prepared in 1193 to instruct the crown prince on astronomical findings. The plan was carved into stone a few decades later.
Mathematics and cartography
There were many important improvements to Chinese mathematics during the Song era. Mathematician Yang Hui's 1261 book provides the earliest Chinese illustrations of the Pascal triangle, although it had previously been described by Jia Xian in about 1100. Yang Hui also provides the rules for constructing combinatorial arrangements in the magic box, providing theoretical evidence for Euclid's forty-three propositions on parallelograms , and is the first to use the negative coefficient 'x' in the quadratic equation. The contemporary Qin Jiushao (c 1202-1261) was the first to introduce a zero symbol into Chinese mathematics; before this blank space is used instead of zero in the counting bar system. It is also known for working with Chinese residual theorems, the Heron formula, and astronomical data used in determining the winter solstice. Qin's main work is the Mathematical Matters in the Nine Sections published in 1247.
Geometry is very important for surveying and cartography. The earliest Chinese map still existed until the 4th century BC, but it was not until the time of Pei Xiu (224-271) that topographic elevations, the formal rectangular grid system, and the use of standardized graduation scales were applied to the field map. Following the long tradition, Shen Kuo creates a help map, while other maps display a uniform scale of 1: 900,000. A square map of 3Ã, ft (0.91 m) from 1137 - carved into stone blocks - followed a uniform grid scale of 100 li for each square box, and accurately charted the coastline and the Chinese river system, extending all the way to India. In addition, the world's oldest terrain map in print comes from an encyclopedia edited from Yang Jia in 1155, featuring western China without a formal grid system that is characteristic of a professionally made Chinese map. Although gazetteers have existed since 52 CE during the Han dynasty and gazetteers accompanied by illustrative maps (China: tujing) since the Sui dynasty, pictorial gazetteers became much more common in the Song dynasty, when the main concern was to describe the gazetteers to serve political, administrative and military purposes.
Moving type printing
The innovation of moving type printing was made by the artist Bi Sheng (990-1051), first described by scientist and statesman Shen Kuo in his book Dreamland Essays of 1088. The original clay bundle Bi Sheng -fired typography forwarded to one of Shen Kuo's nephews, and carefully preserved. Movable types increase the use of the widely used woodblock method to print thousands of documents and volumes of written literature, which is consumed enthusiastically by an increasingly literate society. The advancement of educational printing is profoundly affected and the undergraduate-official classes, as more books can be made faster while mass-produced print books are cheaper than handful copies of handwriting. The widening print and print culture that extends over the Song period is thus a direct catalyst in enhancing social mobility and the expansion of an educated, educated elite class, the latter of which evolved dramatically in size from the 11th to the 13th centuries.
The movable type invented by Bi Sheng was ultimately made by using woodblock printing due to the limitations of the very large Chinese writing system, but the type of moving printing continued to be used and improved in the next period. Officer Wang of the Yuan dynasty (fl 1290-1333) applied the faster letters, improved the character of the Bi-clay type clay with wooden sticks, and experimented with the type of tin-moving metal. The rich printing shields of Hua Sui (1439-1513) of the Ming dynasty formed China's first moving metal type (using bronze) in 1490. In 1638, the Beijing Gazette transformed their printing process from woodblock to mobile printing type. But during the Qing dynasty, major printing projects began using mobile printing types. This included the printing of sixty-six copies of the 5202 volumes of the encyclopedia length in 1725, Hydraulic and nautical techniques
The most important maritic innovation of the Song period seems to be the introduction of the magnetic marine compass, which allows accurate navigation on the high seas regardless of the weather. The magnetic compass needle - known in Chinese as the "south direction pointer" - was first described by Shen Kuo in its 1088 Dream Pool Essays and was first mentioned in active use by seafarers in Zhu Yu's 1119 Pingzhou Table Talk .
There were other major advances in hydraulic engineering and marine technology during the Song dynasty. The discovery of the pound key in the 10th century for the drainage system allows different water levels to be raised and lowered for separate channel segments, which significantly helps the safety of channel traffic and allows for larger barges. There is a Song-era innovation of the waterproof membrane compartment that allows damage to the stomach without sinking the ship. If the ship was damaged, the Chinese in the 11th century employed drydocks to fix it while suspended from the water. Song uses a crossbar to hold the ship's rib to strengthen it in a skeletal structure. The hard-mounted steering has been installed on Chinese ships since the first century, as evidenced by Han's tomb preserved from a ship. In the Song period, the Chinese devised a way to mechanically raise and lower the steering so that ships could travel in the wider depths of water. Song set the anchor teeth protruding in a circular pattern, not one-way. David Graff and Robin Higham stated that this arrangement "[makes] them more reliable" for shipwreck.
Structural engineering and architecture
The architecture during the Song period reaches new heights of sophistication. Authors like Yu Hao and Shen Kuo wrote a book outlining the layout of architecture, skill, and structural engineering in the 10th and 11th centuries, respectively. Shen Kuo retains Yu Hao's written dialogue when describing technical issues such as slanted tilt that is built into pagoda towers for diagonal wind buffers. Shen Kuo also retains the dimensions and measurement units that Yu determined for different types of buildings. The architect Li Jie (1065-1110), who published Yingzao Fashi ('The Treatise on Architectural Methods') in 1103, greatly expanded the work of Yu Hao and compiled the standard building codes used by central government agencies and by the craftsmen throughout the empire. He discusses the standard methods of construction, design, and application of trenches and forts, stones, larger wooden crafts, lower wood, woodcarving, transforming and drilling, sawing, bamboo work, tiles, building walls, paintings and decorations, shiny tile making, and provided a proportion to the mortar formula in stone. In his book, Li provides a detailed and clear illustration of the architectural components and cross-sectional buildings. This illustration features various applications of corbel brackets, cantilever arms, mortise and work-beam blocks and cross beams, and diagrams showing different types of space buildings in multilevel size. He also outlines the standard unit of measurement and measurement of the standard dimensions of all building components described and illustrated in his book.
The magnificent building projects are supported by the government, including the towering establishment of China's Buddhist pagoda and the construction of large bridges (wood or stone, bridge of a trestle or segmental bridge). Many of the pagoda towers built during the Song period were erected at altitudes in excess of ten floors. Some of the most famous are Iron Pagoda built in 1049 during the Northern Song and Liuhe Pagoda which was built in 1165 during the Southern Song, although there are many others. The highest is the Hebei Liaodi Pagoda built in 1055, towering as high as 84 m (276 ft). Some of the bridges reach a length of 1,220 m (4,000 ft), with many being wide enough to allow two railway traffic lanes simultaneously over a waterway or ravine. The government also oversaw the construction of their own administrative offices, palace apartments, city forts, ancestral temples, and Buddhist temples.
The profession of architects, craftsmen, carpenters, and structural engineers is not seen as a professional equivalent to a Confucian scholar official. Architectural knowledge has been inherited verbally for thousands of years in China, in many cases from a father's craftsman to his son. Structural engineering and architecture schools are known to have existed during the Song period; one of the prestigious engineering schools headed by the famous bridge builder Cai Xiang (1012-1067) in Fujian province in the middle ages.
In addition to the existing buildings and technical literature of the building manual, the Song dynasty artwork depicting city sights and other buildings helps modern scholars in their efforts to reconstruct and embody the feel of Song architecture. Song dynasty artists such as Li Cheng, Fan Kuan, Guo Xi, Zhang Zeduan, Huizong Song Emperor, and Ma Lin depict the close-up depiction of the building as well as a large expanse of cityscape featuring arch bridges, halls and pavilions, pagoda towers and city walls Different Chinese. Scientist and statesman Shen Kuo is known for his criticism of architectural artwork, saying it is more important for an artist to capture a holistic view of the landscape rather than focusing on the corners and corners of the building. For example, Shen criticized the work of painter Li Cheng for failing to observe the principle of "small view from a great point of view" in describing the building.
There is also a pyramid cemetery structure in the Song era, such as the imperial Song tomb located in Gongxian, Henan province. About 100 km (62 mi) from Gongxian is another Song Dynasty tomb in Baisha, which features "an elaborate facsimile in Chinese wooden frame construction bricks, from doorway to pillar and pole to bracket set, which decorate interior walls." The two large chambers of Baisha's tomb also have a conical roof. Flanking the road to these tombs is a row of sculptures of the Song dynasty consisting of officials, tomb keepers, animals, and mythological creatures.
Archeology
In addition to the reconnaissance of Song's aristocratic art collections, undergraduate officials during Song became deeply interested in picking up ancient relics from archaeological sites, to revive the use of ancient ships in state ritual ceremonies. Song-era scholars claim to have discovered an ancient bronze ship made as far as the Shang dynasty (1600-1046 BC), which gave birth to Shang's written characters. Some try to recreate these bronze ships only by the use of imagination, not by observing the real evidence of relics; This practice was criticized by Shen Kuo in his work in 1088. However Shen Kuo has more criticism than this practice alone. Shen objected to his friends' notion that ancient relics are products made by famous "wise men" in ancient aristocratic knowledge or classes; Shen is entitled to attribute crafts and ships found from ancient times as works of craftsmen and commoners of the previous era. He also disagrees with archaeological pursuits only to enhance state rituals, since Shen not only takes an interdisciplinary approach with archeology studies, but he also emphasizes the study of functionality and investigates what constitutes the original making process of ancient relics. Shen uses ancient texts and existing armilaris models to create that are based on ancient standards; Shen describes ancient weaponry such as the use of scaled vision devices in the crossbow; while experimenting with ancient musical steps, Shen suggested hanging an ancient bell by using a hollow handle.
Although the main interest of the aristocracy in archeology was simply to revive the rituals of the ancient state, some of Shen's colleagues took the same approach to study archeology. Contemporary character Ouyang Xiu (1007-1072) compiled an analytical catalog of ancient rubles on stone and bronze that pioneered ideas in early epigraphy and archeology. During the 11th century, Song scholars discovered the ancient temple of Wu Liang (78-151 CE), a scholar from the Han Dynasty (202 BC - 220 CE); they produce sculptures of carvings and reliefs that adorn the walls of his tomb so it can be analyzed elsewhere. In unreliable historical works written after fact, the official scholar Zhao Mingcheng (1081-1129) states "... inscriptions on stone and bronze were made at the time of the event and can be trusted without a reservation, and thus differences can be found." Historian RC Rudolph states that Zhao's emphasis on consulting contemporary sources for accurate dates parallels the attention of the German historian Leopold von Ranke (1795-1886), and is in fact emphasized by many of the Song clerics. Song Hong Mai scholar (1123-1202) strongly condemns what he calls the "ridiculous" archeological catalog of Bogutu court collected during the Huizong government period of Zheng He and Xuan He (1111-1125). Hong Mai acquired old ships from the Han dynasty and compared them with descriptions offered in the catalog, which he found so inaccurate that he declared it necessary to "hold both sides with laughter." Hong Mai points out that the wrong material is a mistake of Chancellor Cai Jing (1047-1126), which forbids scholars to read and consult written history.
See also
Note
References
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Further reading
External links
- Song Dynasty in China Heritage Quarterly
- Song Dynasty at bcps.org
- Songs and Liao artwork
- Art dynasty art with video comment
- New Compiled New Geographic Survey
- The History of the Relationship Between China's Empire and the Tibetan Regime in Tang and Song Dynasties
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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